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1		The Georgian and Regency period lasted 123 years. It began in 1714, with George I, and ended in 1837, when the young Queen Victoria ascended the throne. More The last part of the Georgian age is often called the "Regency" period. This is because King George III was disabled by mental illness, and his son, who later became George IV, served for many years as the Prince Regent. He died in 1830 and was succeeded by his brother, William IV (even though he is not called George he is still regarded as falling within this period).
2		The early Georgian period was more peaceful and stable than the Stuart era. Government had reached the point where struggles between groups were generally carried out in the Houses of Parliament, rather than on the battlefield. More The exception to this were the 'Jacobite Uprisings' (which aimed to return the house of Stuart to the throne). The Uprisings started after James II was removed from the throne by Parliament, in the Glorious Revolution in 1688, and continued until 1746, when Charles Edward Stuart (known as the Young Pretender) was soundly defeated at the battle of Culloden.
3		The Agricultural Revolution was well under way. New farming techniques, crops and machinery saw more food produced. The enclosure of common land resulted in bigger, more productive farms but many poor people lost their rights to village land. More The advantages of the agricultural reforms were cheaper and more reliable sources of food. By the mid-Georgian period, wages went further and mass starvation became a thing of the past – a huge advantange for a pre-industrial society. Poverty, however, had not gone away. Those forced off the land to find work in the towns, often found only a new type of poverty.
4		Abroad it was a time of dramatic expansion in British commerce, territory and power. By the end of the era, Britain was the undisputed superpower of the day with a vast empire. More Britain started the period as one of several leading European states, along with Spain, Holland and, above all, France. London was one of the most important commercial centres in the world. By the end, it was the capital of an empire that took in much of India, a scattering of colonies in Africa, the immensely valuable West Indian islands and the vast expanses of Canada.
5		There was great rivalry with France and other nations for overseas trade. Ships of the merchant navy carried commerce as far as South America and China. London’s influence stretched far wider than the British Empire: it was the commercial and industrial capital of the world. More British trade dominated areas such as South America and China, which were well beyond formal British rule. This generated huge wealth for Britain. The ships of the merchant navy were protected by the warships of the Royal Navy, which also protected Britain iteslf from attack by foreign powers.
6		In mid-Georgian England, most towns were still small but new buildings were changing the character of many. Large areas of London were developed in the classic Georgian style. Towns such as Bath and Bewdley took on their modern appearance, with buildings characterized by proportion, balance and symmetry. More Regularity of house fronts along a street was a desirable feature of Georgian town planning, with panelled doors and multi-pane symmetrical windows decorated in the classical (ancient Roman or Greek) style.
7		The British Transatlantic Slave Trade grew rapidly during the period. Slave ships left ports in Britain for West Africa, carrying goods that were exchanged for enslaved Africans, who were shipped across the Atlantic to labour in plantations in the Caribbean and America. More Millions of Africans were enslaved. The voyage took about four months, during which the enslaved people mostly lay chained in rows on the floor or on shelves. Many died. In the West Indies, the enslaved Africans were sold at slave auctions. Once bought, the enslaved Africans belonged to the plantation owner and had no rights at all. They fought their enslavement in many ways and were often punished very harshly.
8		The profits gained from slavery helped to finance the Industrial Revolution. Wealth flowed into Britain and saw the development of financial institutions and the factories and technologies that underpinned the industrial revolution. More The sugar colonies were seen as Britain's most valuable assets and fortunes were made through the Slave Trade. The money from the sale of the enslaved people was used to buy goods such as sugar, coffee and tobacco, which were transported back to Britain for sale. Sugar production was controlled by a small group of wealthy planters and merchants, who had great political power which they used to fight those who opposed the Slave Trade; eventually, in 1807, the Slave Trade was abolished and, in 1833, slavery was finally abolished throughout the British Empire.
9		The start of the Industrial Revolution brought great changes. The way in which millions of people lived and worked was transformed. New technologies based on water and steam power created new ways of working, and destroyed old ones. More Although most people still lived in the countryside, Britain, at the end of the Georgian period, was very different from the Britain of 1714. The population had risen from about five million to over fifteen million. As the Agricultural Revolution reached its peak, many people were forced off the land into the towns, to labour in the new factories and mills.
10		Some parts of Britain became transformed by the arrival of large, machine-driven factories. After the invention of the efficient steam engine, these great buildings started belching out smoke whilst creating huge wealth for the nation as a whole. More From the mid-Eighteenth century onwards, factories, foundaries, mills and mines became a fixture of the growing towns. Some parts of Britain became the first regions in the world to become truly industrialized, and the country as a whole became the wealthiest nation the world had yet seen.
11		However, Georgian society was still dominated by about 200 immensely wealthy landowning families. Each of these families owned thousands of acres. They had many servants and lived in stately homes surrounded by well-laid out grounds. Most belonged to the hereditary nobility and had seats in the House of Lords. More These large landowners were extremely powerful. They dominated Parliament through their connections and patronage. Most of these aristocrats were "Whigs" - they belonged to a party which felt the need to contain the power of the kings and protect the rights of the common man.
12		Below them were several thousand lesser landowners, the gentry. Gentry families usually owned several hundred acres and lived in houses that reflected the tastes of the time. They also had lots of influence, particuarly in the House of Commons. More Most members of the Commons came from this class, as well as the local magistrates who ran the counties and parishes.
13		The rise in wealth saw British society re-shaped with the rise of a large, urban middle class. The middle classes consisted of merchants, lawyers and doctors and below them were the artisans and craftsmen. More The wealthier middle classes mostly lived in large houses, their needs cared for by several servants in each household. Below them in wealth came the craftsmen, shopkeepers and small farmers who usually had enough to live on and keep a respectable household, usually with a servant or two.
14		Many of the newly prosperous merchants wanted to become part of the ruling aristocracy. These people were using their new-found wealth to buy large amounts of land and build grand houses. More Newly rich merchants were building houses as grand as those of the ‘old’ aristocratic families. The reality for the aristocracy at this time was that these people with ‘new money’ were challenging the old order. It became increasingly difficult to distinguish a 'genuine' aristocrat from a 'nouveau riche' impostor and therefore an elegant (or fashionably inelegant) manner was a sign of true gentility.
15		Further down the social scale came the farm labourers, domestic servants, workmen, soldiers and sailors. For these people, their only income was their wages. Usually there was enough work for them to do – until they fell into ill-health or old age. More If they were out of a job for some reason, they were in danger of falling into real poverty, but in mid-Georgian times, foreign visitors were amazed at how well fed even the poorest Englishmen looked. Real starvation was a thing of the past, but bankruptcy and the debtors’ prison were quite common.
16		At the bottom of the social heap were the paupers. Paupers depended on handouts from the Parish to live. This class included criminal elements as well as those who had fallen into permanent poverty. Criminal gangs were common and there was a growing fear of crime as the era progressed. Punishments, if caught, were harsh. More Rogues roamed the countryside, with criminal gangs in the towns. During this era, Dick Turpin and some of the most famous highwaymen plied their trade. By the late 1700's, in an effort to cut crime, over 200 offences carried the death penalty. By this time, however, there was a growing concern over the number of people sentenced to be hanged for petty crimes.
17		For the rich, the most important part of the year was the 'London Season'. It began with the opening of Parliament in March and lasted until late June, when the rich returned to their country homes. More Ladies visited friends and went to lavish balls, the theatre or the opera, and patronized the fashionable shops. The gentleman would attend parliament, if a member, and the gentlemen's clubs, or deal with business matters before being richly entertained.
18		Rich Georgian houses were show-pieces for entertaining. Airiness, space and light were desirable features in the Georgian home. Rooms were decorated with intricate mouldings, decorative objects, elegant fireplaces, chandeliers made from glass and delicate furniture. More Early Georgian colour schemes included burgundy, sage green and blue, but later became lighter with soft blue, grey, dusky pink, white or stone. The fireplace was the centre of focus in a room. Printed books containing designs and architectural models were becoming available to the public for the first time, allowing more people to copy the fashionable styles.
19		The Georgians paid great attention to fashion, art, sport and music. A Georgian gentleman was meant to display his wealth elegantly and provide lavish entertainments for his guests. He was also meant to be skilled with a weapon, an excellent horse-rider, good at driving a carriage, and dancing. A gentlewoman should be accomplished at both art and music. More Both sexes were also meant to show sensitivity towards nature, a knowledge of literature and poetry, well-reasoned discourse and lively conversational skills. The novel was invented during this era and reading became very popular.
20		The Georgian period was also known as the 'Age of Reason' or the 'Enlightenment' A new way of thinking arose around the concept that authority, behaviour and beliefs should be based on reason and rational scientific explanations. People were eager to explore new ideas, without fear of being accused of treason or heresy. More Previously-held beliefs about the way people should behave, and about religious faith, were now challenged in speeches and books. For example, Thomas Paine wrote "Common Sense" and "The Rights of Man". His writings helped to inspire revolutions in France and America.
21		Improvements in printing techniques saw the spread of written information. Printing became quicker and cheaper. The first successful English daily newspaper, The Daily Courant, published from 1702 to 1735, was soon followed by others. The contents of these publications were debated in the coffee houses across the country. More The coffee houses became the place for like-minded men to gather, read, learn and debate with one another. In Oxford, some developed into "penny universities", offering a place for less formal learning and debate than in the university. They were open to men of all social status and, as a result, became associated with equality and republicanism. Throughout the period there was an explosion of interest in debate and public speaking, and some newly set-up debating societies welcomed spectators. Women, however, were generally barred from attendance.
22		The American war of Independence was followed by the French Revolution and Napoleonic Wars. The Revolutionary and the Napoleonic Wars, fought with France, cast a shadow over the end of the 18th century. The rich and powerful were afraid that a revolution would also happen in Britain. More The American War of Independence began in 1775, after the 13 British Colonies in America declared their independence. They formed themselves into a new country, the United States of America, and the fighting lasted until 1783. France declared war on Britain on 1st February 1793, and the Revolutionary War continued until 1802. In 1803, war - now known as the Napoleonic War - resumed between Britain and France. On 21st October 1805, the Battle of Trafalgar saw Britain gain control of the seas. The French conquered most of Europe but collapsed rapidly after a disastrous invasion of Russia in 1812. The war ended in 1815, after the battle of Waterloo, and Napoleon was exiled to the mid-Atlantic island of St Helena.
23		At the end of the 18th century, areas of slums were springing up in the towns. The miserable conditions in the slums were just like those described by Dickens, in the later Victorian times. Work in the factories did not require much skill and children often provided cheaper labour than adults. More Young children, from the age of about 8 upwards, often worked long hours in appalling conditions. Social reformers worked for improvements in factories and prisons, while evangelical Christianity gained in popularity.
24		The Industrial Revolution made many people rich but, for many poor families, life was worse than it had been for a long time. Towns and cities grew very quickly, as more people moved from the countryside to find work. In the worst slums, the poorest people suffered awful poverty and crippling diseases. More As the 19th century progressed, the population grew rapidly. Changes in agricultural practices left many labourers without sufficient work to support their families, causing more people to flood into the cities. There were the new rich, but there were also the new poor.
25		The late 18th century and early 19th century saw protests and riots. The harsh economic climate, due to the Napoleonic Wars, and the degrading working conditions in the new factories caused much unrest, with uprisings against the new machines and the government. More In the early 19th century, the Luddites (a social movement of textile artisans) protested—often by destroying mechanized looms—against the changes produced by the Industrial Revolution, which they felt were leaving them without work. The movement soon spread across England and, later, to the agricultural workers who attacked threshing machines and burnt hay-ricks in protest at loss of work in the countryside. At the end of the era, the new Poor Law, and the building of the new workhouses also caused fear amongst the poor.
26		Ordinary people wanted more say in the running of the country and were pressing for political reform. Reform finally came in 1832 with ‘The Great Reform Act'. The Act granted seats in the House of Commons to large cities that had grown up during the Industrial Revolution, and increased the number of people who could vote to one in five of the population. More The growing agitation for political reform came from both the rising middle class and the increasingly vocal labourers. Political reform finally came in 1832 with 'The Great Reform Act'. This increased power to the new cities and removed it from the so called ‘rotten boroughs’ (those with few voters).
27		In the last years of the Georgian era, railways were being built through the length and breadth of Britain. These would soon bring the industrial age to all corners of our islands. By the end of the Georgian period, although new industries and technologies were changing everyday life, most of the population was still living in the pre-industrial age. This would soon change. More Agricultural improvements were transforming farming in this country, which was leading to massive growth in population, an essential ingredient in the rise of the industrial economy. Whole industries based on the steam engine were creating new industrial towns, and great the coal fields were being opened up by ever-deeper mines. By the end of the Georgian and Regency period Britain was on the way to becoming the first industrial nation on Earth - and the transformation of this country had only just begun!

Grilled Grapefruit

If you have an electric grill, put it on to get hot. Carefully cut the grapefruit in...

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