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1		Life expectancy seems to have been quite short. Life expectancy may have been quite low in the Roman period, although scholars have recently questioned the reliability of statistics taken from archaeological and other sources. However, it is clear that many women died in childbirth and many young children also died. More On the other hand, once a person had reached adulthood, the chances were good that he would reach late middle age or even old age. (The chances that SHE would do so were rather less, as around a quarter of women died in childbirth.)
2		Plague was, at times, a threat during the Roman Empire At certain times in Rome's history, plagues swept the empire, killing large numbers of people. At such times, all the people’s life chances were affected by the dreaded disease, the Bubonic Plague. More Plague swept the empire at the end of the second century AD, and recurred thereafter. Perhaps a third of the empire’s population died. Some scholars think that this sufficiently weakened the empire to send it into irreversible decline.
3		The baths were important to the Romans but their impact on health is hard to measure. Public baths were to be found in every city throughout the Roman Empire and were the focus of the social life of the city. More They contained hot and cold pools, steam rooms and massage rooms. They were open to all classes and, although the benefits are impossible to measure, they presumably must have had a positive impact on public health.
4		Systems of pipes or aqueducts brough fresh water to the cities. The quantity of fresh water available in the average Roman town was far greater than in later centuries, right up to Victorian times. In Roman Britain, large aqueducts were not needed, as water could be found close to most places in rivers or wells. More The water for the public baths often came from miles away, and was supplied through a system of aqueducts. Piped water also supplied many fountains, which were the main source of water for poorer households.
5		Physical exercise was much prized in Greek and Roman times. It was the Greeks, after all, who started the Olympic Games, which continued right throughout Roman times. Sports such as wrestling were also popular. Public baths also contained gymnasiums. More The Olympic Games were only abolished in the sixth century AD, when the emperor Justinian, who was a Christian, felt that to keep such a famous pagan festival going was wrong.
6		There were sewers and public toilets to help keep the cities clean. Roman towns contained several healthy features such as sewers and even public toilets. Drainage was an important part of Roman town planning. More Sewers took the refuse of the towns away. Such things were not seen again in Britain until the nineteenth century.
7		In richer homes, there was central heating to keep people warm and healthy in cold winter months. This central heating was provided by fires, whose heat was directed under the floors of the house, thus warming the rooms above. More The Romans came from a warmer climate than our own. And the army, which they brought over, contained troops not just from Italy (where Rome is), but from Syria, North Africa and other such hot lands. The health of these men must have suffered, especially if they found themselves facing the bleak cold of a Northumbrian winter, on exposed sections of Hadrian’s Wall. However, these men, too, had hot baths to go to after their times on duty, and this must have been a comfort and a strength.
8		The practice of medicine was largely in the hands of Greek doctors. The Greeks had developed many theories about medicine, most of which are regarded as nonsense today. More The Greeks and Romans believed that a person’s health depended on the balance of four “humours” in his body – blood, black bile, yellow bile and phlegm. Their beliefs would greatly influence Medieval medicine.
9		Although many of their ideas have been disproved, the Greeks introduced the idea of careful observation. Greek doctors developed techniques of careful observation of patients’ symptoms, and how to deal with these by such practical remedies as keeping warm, taking fresh air, herbal medicines and so on. More The best known Greek doctor was Hippocrates and, during the period of the Roman Empire, another Greek doctor, Galen, also became famous.
10		War and conflict cost the lives of many Roman soldiers. In conquering their empire, Roman soldiers fought many battles, and uprisings could see both soldiers and civilians perish. More The worst uprising in Britain was when Boudicca, Queen of the Iceni, led an uprising in AD 60-61. Boudicca's warriors successfully defeated the Roman Ninth Legion and destroyed the capital of Roman Britain, then at Colchester. They even burnt down a temple where elderly soldiers and civilians were sheltering. They then went on to destroy London and Verulamium (St Albans). An estimated 70,000-80,000 people were killed in the three cities. Finally, Boudicca was defeated by a Roman army led by their general Paulinus. 80,000 Britons and 400 Romans died in the battle. Boudicca is thought to have poisoned herself to avoid capture.
11		The towns the Romans built in Britain were actually healthier than Rome itself. The city of Rome had grown up over the course of many centuries and, unlike many of the cities that the Romans later built (in Britain, for example), their home city was completely unplanned, with many people crowded together. More Throughout the empire’s history, one of the most unhealthy places of all was the capital, Rome, itself. The poorer inhabitants lived in high-rise apartment blocks. These were often built on the cheap, and were of flimsy construction. They had a reputation for collapsing without warning! Also, because Rome was so crowded, dangerous fires could sweep through the city, destroying whole quarters. Finally, nearby lay extensive marshes, a breeding ground for mosquitoes. Malaria was an ever-present danger in summer, and killed hundreds each year. The richer Romans made sure to spend the hot months in their villas in the hills.
12		Religion was import in every aspect of daily life, including health. In the early period of Roman rule in Britain, the Romans worshipped many gods; there were many minor gods connected with health and childbirth to whom people would make offerings. More Just some examples include Diana, the goddess of the hunt, moon and childbirth; Cardea the goddess of health; Carmenta and Candelifrea, who were both goddesses of childbirth; Bona Dea, the goddess of fertility; Aesculapius, the god of health and medicine; Alemonia or Alemona, who was responsible for nourishing the unborn child; Angita, the god of healing and magic; Febris, the goddess who protected people against sickness. There were also the Lares, who were household gods, and even Cuba, a goddess who helped babies sleep. The Romans often also granted the local gods of the conquered territory the same honours as their own gods.

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